Islam and Science: Origins, Current Developments, and Hopes for the Future
Shoaib Ahmed Malik
This blog post presents an insider’s perspective on the evolving relationship between Islam and Science. As an active participant in this field, I begin with a historical context of the broader Science and Religion domain, setting the stage for a deeper dive into Islam and Science. The focus then shifts to recent advancements in this area, spotlighting key developments, influential thinkers, and significant milestones. This piece is tailored for fellow academics interested in the maturation of Islam and Science as a distinct and burgeoning area of scholarly research and dialogue.
While this post offers a foundational overview, it is intended primarily as an introduction to the subject. If you would like to delve deeper into any specific area of current research or explore recent developments further, please reach out, and I can happily provide additional information or insights as needed.
Section 1: The Field of Science of Religion (Christianity and Science)
In the field of Science of Religion, specifically in the study of the interplay between Christianity and Science, there is a unique historical path that is crucial to comprehend when exploring the field of Islam and Science, especially for identifying comparative differences.
The roots of Christianity and modern science discourse can, from one perspective, be traced back to the late nineteenth century when pivotal figures such as John William Draper and Andrew Dickson White laid the foundation for discussions in this area, focusing on and emphasizing conflict as the main mode of interaction, at least for Catholicism and Science. This attitude was further amplified more broadly for all denominations and religions by the rise of logical positivism in the 1930s. Both set the initial tone for how Christian scholars were to engage with Science and Religion.
Christianity and Science has evolved through three recognizable phases. The first phase, also recognizable as the formative stage, spanning from the 1960s to the 1980s, primarily revolved around methodological considerations. Scholars grappled with the various ways in which science and religion could be analyzed and interconnected. The formalization of this field occurred with the publication of Ian Barbour’s groundbreaking work, Issues in Science and Religion, in 1966. Importantly, Barbour’s influential taxonomy, which included Conflict, Independence, Integration, and Dialogue as four possible modes of engagement between Science and Religion, emerged during this phase, aiming to show that conflict is not necessarily the only way of relating Science and Religion. This period also witnessed the launch of the esteemed journal Zygon: Journal of Science and Religion.
The second phase, known as the Divine Action Project (DAP), unfolded from the 1980s to the 2000s. During this substantial endeavour, Through the combined efforts of the Centre of Theology and Natural Sciences and the Vatican Observatory, a group of scholars endeavoured to develop models of Divine Action that remained faithful to theological commitments while accommodating modern scientific advancements. The emergence of indeterministic theories like quantum mechanics and evolution became focal points, offering intriguing avenues for exploring Divine Action and scientific principles.
The current stage is often encapsulated by the new catchphrase “science-engaged theology” (SET), spanning from the 2000s to the present day. This phase marks a departure from grand narratives – namely, methodological considerations of Science and Religion, as well as Divine Action – and instead emphasizes detailed inquiries and localized intersections between Science and Religion.
With this understanding of the field of Science of Religion as it pertains to Christianity and Science, we can now delve into the distinct historical development of Islam and Science in the next section.
Section 2: The Historical Development of Islam and Science
The historical journey of Islam and Science has taken a distinct path compared to that of Christianity and Science. Notably, the Islamic world was once united under a single political entity, the caliphate, which was dissolved in 1924. This dissolution led to the formation of various nation-states in the Muslim world, some of which only achieved independence in the 1970s. During this period, the influence of European colonial powers was significant, eventually transitioning to a post-colonial era within these new nation-states. This backdrop significantly influenced the early discussions in the field of Islam and Science (I&S). These discussions were shaped by the effects of imperialism, colonialism, and orientalism, which played a crucial role in framing the integration and understanding of I&S in the contemporary world.
In this context, key Muslim intellectuals like Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī, Syed Ahmed Khan Taqvi, Muḥammad ʿAbduh, Rashīd Riḍā, and Muhammad Iqbal became leading figures in the early dialogue about Islam’s relationship with modern science. While their approaches varied, they collectively aimed to address the challenges posed by Western imperialism and colonialism, as well as to facilitate Muslim reform and revival. Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī advocated for the integration of modern scientific and technological advancements into Muslim societies, emphasizing the importance of scientific knowledge for empowerment. Syed Ahmed Khan Taqvi championed modern education incorporating Western science and philosophy, believing that science and reason were essential for Muslim progress. Muḥammad ʿAbduh promoted the compatibility of Islam with modern science, encouraging Muslims to embrace scientific inquiry as a means of advancement. Interestingly, Draper’s ideas were picked up by ʿAbduh to argue how Islam has a better relationship with science than does Christianity. This is important to note, as such interfaith perspectives are picked up again in a later development in I&S. Rashīd Riḍā facilitated the translation and dissemination of Western scientific works into Arabic, seeking to bridge the gap between Islamic tradition and modern science. Muhammad Iqbal called for a revival of Islamic thought and emphasized the need for independent reasoning (ijtihad) to reinterpret Islamic teachings in light of modern scientific discoveries. Collectively, these thinkers urged Muslims to engage with Western science and philosophy, viewing them as instrumental tools for societal and intellectual progress, leaving a lasting impact on the Muslim world’s approach to science and its integration with Islamic principles.
The reception of their ideas varied, with some being very critical of the overall framing of the discussion and others being sympathetic to them, but collectively, they left an enduring impact on how the Muslim world approached politics, legal systems, and science education. Their efforts laid the foundation for subsequent discussions on the relationship between I&S, marking a critical phase in the historical trajectory of this discourse.
The formative development of the discourse surrounding I&S did not occur until the 1980s, during which two significant discussions emerged prominently. The first was the Islamization of the Sciences (IoS) movement, and the second was the Scientific Miracles in the Qur’an (SMQ) movement. Interestingly, these movements represented diametrically opposed approaches to the intersection of I&S.
The IoS movement was characterized by scepticism toward modern sciences, viewing them as carrying philosophical and historical baggage contradicting the Islamic worldview. According to proponents of this movement, modern science, being secular and Western in origin, contained foreign elements incompatible with Islamic principles. The IoS movement aimed to identify and filter out these perceived foreign elements, although various thinkers within this movement held differing perspectives on how this should be achieved.
In contrast, the SMQ movement took a different path by examining how modern scientific knowledge aligned with details mentioned in the Qur’an. Advocates of this movement highlighted striking parallels between scientific findings in fields such as embryology, astronomy, geology, and chemistry and the descriptions found in the Qur’an. This alignment was presented as evidence of the divine origin of the Qur’an, making it a compelling apologetic tool. Consequently, this period witnessed a surge in conferences, books, and media productions promoting these ideas. Undoubtedly, this entire movement was made popular by Maurice Bucaille with the publication of The Bible, the Qur’an and Science: The Holy Scripture Examined in the Light of Modern Knowledge. Interestingly, Bucaille seems to follow ʿAbduh in arguing how Islam fares better with modern science than does Christianity. However, despite their success, both the IoS and SMQ movements later faced significant critiques, leading to a reevaluation of their initial support.
While these two movements continue to be discussed, the 2000s and onwards marked a shift towards the maturation of the field of I&S. In the next section, we will delve into current developments in the field of I&S, shedding light on contemporary discussions and research trends.
Section 3: Current Developments in Islam and Science
In recent years, the field of I&S has experienced significant growth and diversification, reflecting a dynamic landscape characterized by a multitude of research directions and interdisciplinary approaches. These could be largely seen as Islamic SET. This section provides an overview of some of the current developments within the field, offering a glimpse into the diverse array of topics and inquiries that have emerged.
Methodological Considerations: One prominent strand of research involves methodological considerations in studying I&S. Scholars have explored various theological and philosophical frameworks for analyzing the relationship between Islam and modern science. These discussions not only refine our understanding of this intricate relationship but also provide essential tools for critically engaging with the subject matter. It should be noted that, while the SET phase aims to move away from such conversations, given the historical disparities, Muslim thinkers are still deliberating over this discussion. Nidhal Guessoum’s fourth chapter in his seminal monograph, Islam’s Quantum Question, provides a good overview of this topic.
Evolution: The topic of Islam and evolution (I&E) has garnered substantial attention and debate. Scholars have delved into questions surrounding the compatibility of evolutionary theory with Islamic beliefs, the historical context of these discussions, and the theological implications of evolutionary biology. It is probably the maturest research line in the space of I&S, with several authors contributing to this area, including Nidhal Guessoum, David Solomon Jalajel, Rana Dajani, Seyyed Hossein Nasr, and Shoaib Ahmed Malik, to name a few.
Physics and Cosmology: Islamic perspectives on physics, cosmology, and the nature of the universe have become areas of active investigation. Researchers delve into the historical contributions of Muslim scientists to these fields while also examining contemporary discussions on topics such as the origins of the cosmos and the implications of modern cosmological theories. Authors like Mehdi Golshani and Basil Altaie have written plenty on this subject matter.
Medical Ethics and Biomedicine: The intersection of Islamic ethics and modern medical developments has generated significant interest. Scholars explore topics like organ transplantation, medical ethics in clinical practice, and the ethical implications of biotechnological advancements, all within the context of Islamic values and principles. There have been several contributors in this space, including Aasim Padela, Mansur Ali, Mohamad Ghaly, Ayman Shabana, and Rafaqat Rashid, to name a few.
Islamic Psychology: Islamic psychology has emerged as a distinct subfield, drawing on traditional Islamic concepts and contemporary psychological theories. Researchers investigate issues related to mental health, well-being, and the integration of Islamic principles into psychological practices. The father of Islamic Psychology, Malik Badri, recently passed away in 2021, but the field still lives on with its successors such as Abdallah Rothman, Hussein Rasool, and Rania Awaad.
The History of Islam and Science: A deeper understanding of the historical development of Islam’s engagement with science across history remains a central focus. Scholars examine the contributions of early Muslim scientists, the transmission of scientific knowledge, and the cultural exchange between Islamic and non-Islamic societies. Ahmad Dallal, Jamil Ragep, George Saliba, Sonja Brentjes, and Justin Stearns are some of the pioneers in this space.
These are just a few examples of the diverse research directions that have flourished within the field of I&S in the past two decades. However, there are still many important, yet unexplored, lines, such as:
- The history of I&S can seem very Arab or Ottoman-centric, and perhaps even Sunnī-centric, marginalizing other voices in the field. There is thus a need for the development of other unheard histories and historiographies of I&S.
- Given recent advancements in AI, how Islamic thought might be impacted by this technological endeavour remains to be seen.
- Islamic theological anthropology is a largely uncharted territory. Given AI, exotheology, evolution, and CSR, this vacuum invites much interest.
Before concluding, it should be added that 2023 has been a pivotal year for the field of I&S. Notably, the Cambridge Elements series on I&S, spearheaded by Nidhal Guessoum and Stefano Bigliardi, was launched. Additionally, Palgrave Macmillan has introduced a new monograph series and an encyclopedia, which I am leading, supported by a team for the encyclopedia. These initiatives are expected to significantly contribute to the development and support of I&S infrastructure for the foreseeable future. I believe and hope that the future growth of this field will be further enhanced by establishing endowed chairs, developing specialized departments, and creating a range of textbooks and handbooks.
In conclusion, the journey of I&S has undergone significant evolution since its early days, transforming into a dynamic and diverse academic field. This transformation reflects the ongoing changes in the landscape of contemporary scholarship, showcasing the field’s resilience and expansion. An important takeaway from this blog is the recognition that different religious traditions are at varying places and paces in their engagement with Science and Religion. This diversity, however, does not preclude the possibility of meaningful interfaith dialogue. In fact, the continuing evolution of I&S is paving the way for fruitful interfaith discussions, collaborative research endeavours, and societal progress. Engaging in critical and constructive dialogues that span various faiths and scientific disciplines not only bolsters academic rigour but also deepens our understanding of the intricate relationship between Islamic viewpoints and scientific exploration. These collaborative efforts extend beyond academia, offering valuable contributions to wider conversations in science, religion, and culture. Such a blend of diverse ideas and perspectives is poised to enhance our collective knowledge, fostering connections among different communities and nurturing a more inclusive, well-informed society.
